Personal Mobility Devices (PMDs) have rapidly emerged as a popular mode of transport across Europe. From electric scooters and e-bikes to (electric) skateboards, self-balancing unicycles, and Segway-type vehicles, these compact and often motorised vehicles are reshaping urban mobility. PMDs can be owned by the user but are also a popular shared mobility feature (e.g. shared e-scooters).
Their growing popularity reflects a broader shift towards flexible, convenient, and sustainable transport options. At the same time, the rapid expansion of micromobility presents new challenges for road safety, infrastructure design, and regulation. As cities continue to integrate PMDs into their transport networks, finding the right balance between accessibility and safety has become increasingly important.
A growing part of urban mobility
One of their main advantages of PMDs is their ability to address the so-called "first- and last-mile problem." Many urban journeys involve a short distance between a person's starting point or destination and the nearest public transport stop. These distances are sometimes too long to walk comfortably but too short to justify driving. PMDs offer a practical solution by helping people connect more easily to buses, trams, trains, or metro systems. They use it to get to the station or destination, pick it up or leave it behind, and continue their journey.
In addition to improving connectivity, PMDs are frequently praised for their:
- Low operating costs;
- Ease of access;
- Ability to avoid traffic congestion;
- Possibility to shared access;
- Limited physical effort compared to cycling.
As a result, they have become an attractive mobility option for many city residents.
Despite these possible advantages, studies showed that a large proportion of shared e-scooter trips substitute other sustainable forms of transport such as walking, cycling or public transport. Only a minority of trips replace journeys that would otherwise have been made by car, taxi or other motorised transport.
Understanding PMD injuries
As PMDs have become more common, hospitals have reported increasing numbers of injuries associated with their use. However, assessing the full scale of the problem remains difficult because PMDs are still a relatively new vehicle category. In many countries, crash databases have only recently started treating them as a separate category, making long-term comparisons challenging. Among e-scooter users, the most frequently reported injuries include:
- Head injuries;
- Fractures of the upper and lower limbs;
- Soft tissue injuries;
- Facial and neck injuries.
Interestingly, most e-scooter crashes do not involve another road user. Single-vehicle crashes, caused by loss of control, intoxication, distraction, road surface defects, or rider inexperience, are particularly common.
However, the most severe injuries and fatalities typically occur when e-scooters collide with heavier motor vehicles. More than 80% of fatal e-scooter crashes and around half of serious trauma cases involve a collision with a motor vehicle.
Safety concerns on busy streets
PMDs still often need to share spaces with pedestrians, cyclists and motorised traffic. This creates potential conflicts with all groups.
When PMDs use pavements, pedestrians are particularly vulnerable because PMDs have a higher mass and can travel at considerably higher speeds than people walking. Pavements are often not designed for vehicles travelling at the speeds achieved by, for example, e-scooters. However, when PMD users share the road with cars, vans, or trucks, they become the vulnerable party due to the substantial differences in speed and weight. It is therefore recommended that PMDs use cycling paths whenever possible.
Visibility presents another challenge. PMDs are generally much quieter than motor vehicles and often lack the powerful lighting systems found on cars and motorcycles. This can make it difficult for pedestrians, particularly older people and individuals with hearing impairments, to detect PMDs when they do use pavements.
Parking presents another challenge. While many cities have introduced dedicated parking zones, users often continue to leave shared devices, such as e-scooters, on pavements. Poor parking practices can create dangerous situations for pedestrians, wheelchair users, and people with visual impairments.
The result is a transport mode that must safely coexist with several other types of road users, each with different characteristics and levels of vulnerability. Technologies such as geofencing can also help by automatically restricting where shared vehicles can travel or reducing speeds in designated areas.
Improving vehicle design
Besides a dedicated placement on the road, the design of PMDs themselves also influences safety. Several vehicle characteristics can increase crash risk, particularly on uneven urban surfaces. Small, hard wheels are more vulnerable to potholes, curbs, and road imperfections, increasing the likelihood of falls.
Research suggests that safety could be improved through:
- Wider and softer wheels;
- Larger wheel diameters;
- Wider standing platforms;
- More effective shock absorbers;
- Direction indicators;
- Audible warning signals;
- Rear-view mirrors;
- Reflective materials for greater visibility.
Developing common technical standards for PMDs could help reduce safety risks while improving vehicle quality and consistency across markets.
Regulation, training and enforcement
Infrastructure and vehicle improvements alone are not enough. Safe integration of PMDs also requires clear regulations and effective enforcement. Frameworks could give guidance on:
- Where PMDs may be used;
- Applicable speed limits;
- Minimum user age requirements;
- Required training;
- Applicable safety rules.
Education plays a central role in improving road safety. Research indicates that many injuries occur during users' first rides, when they are still unfamiliar with vehicle handling and braking characteristics. Educating both PMD users and drivers of motor vehicles can improve interactions between different road users.
Encouraging helmet use
One of the most discussed safety measures for PMDs is helmet use. Given the high proportion of head injuries among injured riders, increasing helmet use could deliver significant safety benefits. However, some experts argue that making helmets compulsory may discourage people from using PMDs, reducing their attractiveness compared to other transport options.
An alternative approach is to increase awareness through education campaigns and collaboration with micromobility operators. Encouraging helmet use through incentives, reminders, and behavioural "nudges" may prove more effective than strict legal requirements.
Towards safer micromobility
Creating safer environments for PMD users, and for those sharing the same public space, requires a combination of better infrastructure, improved vehicle design, effective regulation, targeted enforcement, and ongoing education.
As cities continue to embrace micromobility, ensuring that safety evolves alongside innovation will be essential for unlocking the full potential of these new modes of transport.
Inspiration across Europe
PMDs are trending in all European countries. Sharing good practices and knowledge can help to improve our actions and make the road safer for all road users. Discover what our members are already doing here:
- Look closely instead of looking away – e-scooter training as a contribution to road safety
- My helmet, my superpower!
- Mobility Observation Box - MOB
- Safety Action day with e-scooter providers in Vienna
Sources:
Carson, J., Jost, G., & Meinero, M. (2024). Improving the road safety of e-scooters. ETSC.
European Commission (2025). Road safety thematic report – Personal Mobility Devices. European Road Safety Observatory. Brussels, European Commission, Directorate General for Transport.
Laverdet, C., Malola, P., Meyer, T., & Delhomme, P. (2023). Electric personal mobility device driver behaviors, their antecedents and consequences: A narrative review. Journal of Safety Research, 86, 274–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2023.07.006
Vias institute (2024) Briefing “Elektrische steps en verkeersveiligheid”. Brussel, België, Vias institute, briefings.vias.be
